Historical Background and Contemporary Politics of
Two Southeast Asian Countries:
Thailand and Myanmar (Burma)

PowerPoint Presentation (13.7MB)

By Getachew Metaferia

A synopsis. Dr. Getachew Metaferia, from the Department of Political Science and International Studies, Morgan State University, participated in a Fulbright-Hayes seminar in Thailand and Burma (Myanmar) from June 10 to July 13, 2002. This seminar for faculty from Minority Serving Institutions was organized by the Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS) at the University of Hawaii. Prior to his departure for Bangkok, Thailand and Yangoon, Myanmar, Dr. Metaferia participated in a pre-departure workshop at the University of Hawaii, Honolulu campus from June 9-15, 2002. Other participants from Morgan State University were Drs. Pierre Rogers and Patricia Wells, from the Department of Communications and English respectively.

A brief note on Thailand and Myanmar

Both Thailand and Myanmar are located in Southeast Asia and are deeply rooted in the Buddhist culture and tradition. Thailand is economically developed and has a thriving middle class. Myanmar, on the other hand, is not economically developed but has a potential for development given a conducive political environment.

Thailand: some facts and historical background. Thailand has a population of about 60 million and 10 percent of the population resides in Bangkok, the capital and largest city in Thailand. The glittering city of Bangkok is the administrative, cultural and commercial hub. It boasts two thousand colorful temples. The Emperor's Grand Palace houses the Temple of the Emerald Buddha and covers over fifty acres. It has chapels, palaces, royal reception halls, and pagodas. The statues of the Buddha are decorated with gold leaf and glittering colored glass mosaics. About 95 percent of Thais belong to Theravada Buddhists, an early form of Buddhism. The royal family no longer lives at the Grand Palace and the buildings are used as offices and reception halls as when President Clinton visited Thailand. An interesting feature of Bangkok is its Floating Market. One can purchase fresh fruits, vegetables, clothes and artifacts on boats.

Thailand shares common borders with Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia. The kingdom of Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. It has a Prime Minister and a parliament with two legislative houses. Members of the Lower House are elected; members of the Upper House are appointed.

The Fulbright seminar participants visited important historical and religious sites, in addition to the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok and the cradle of Thai civilization, the city of Sukhothai. Sukhothai was the first important Thai kingdom and flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries. In addition, the 14th century commercial city of Ayutthaya, which was the old capital of Siam, was visited. The king of Ayutthaya became the first king to receive a Portuguese mission in 1511. In order to counterbalance the Portuguese influence, the king of Ayutthaya, sent his delegation to the Netherlands (the Dutch) in 1608. Thus, Thailand maintained its political independence by playing one European power against another. It remained the only independent nation in Southeast Asia.

Our visit to Chiang Mai took us to an elephant show. The elephants are trained to dance, "play" soccer, and paint on canvas and pile logs of teak as they historically did in building Thailand.

See Picture #3 (PPT page 22)
Elephants are shown demonstrating their painting skill

The current political and economic conditions. Leaving the rich historical and cultural legacy aside, one will face the current economic reality in Thailand. In Bangkok, one cannot help but notice the result of the Asian economic "spurt" of the early 1990s. It was here in Thailand that the Asian economic crisis started to unravel. Several high-rise buildings, offices and shopping centers stand unfinished the result of the economic crisis that took investors and speculators by surprise. This could be an example of globalization at its worst: the economic crisis in Thailand had a rippling impact and affected other Asian countries as well. Thailand and other global south countries that faced similar economic conditions in the early 1990s are now struggling to overcome economic crisis, fight unemployment, crime, corruption, and dwindling public services in the areas of health and education, among others. This is in addition to the rise in HIV/AIDS pandemic that countries, including Thailand, are grappling with.

Even though the program under which we visited Thailand did not give us time to talk to the educators and administrators to learn about the education policies of the country, we did see evidence of Thailand's efforts to develop its human resources through education. At Thammasat University we observed up-to-date equipment and lecture facilities, not necessarily indicative of sound educational policy or the delivery of quality and relevant education, but at the least demonstrating a relatively high level of development. Another positive example of respect and enthusiasm for education was a group of uniformed young children hopping on their improvised school buses and heading towards their respective schools.

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Young school children being bused to schools

Bangkok, a city of 10 million souls, is congested with motor traffic emitting pollutants, especially scooters that operate on diesel fuels. The unhealthy environment and the overall contribution to the depletion of the ozone layer and the resulting ecological imbalance are immeasurable. Bangkok, similar to other "megacities" of the global south countries, like Mexico City and New Delhi, needs to take the necessary measures to reduce pollution and urban congestion, and to protect the health of its citizens. The continuos rural-urban migration of the youth seeking employment in the service industries has contributed to the population growth of Bangkok and to its social malaise. As the young depart the villages, fewer hands are left to work on the rice paddies.

It seems that Osama bin Laden has some followers in Bangkok. T-shirts in shops with his pictures and some sport shirts bearing his image are not uncommon. The fact that in an overwhelmingly Buddhist society, he has some fans is interesting to note. I did not get a chance to inquire if this was an exhibition of support for bin Laden's heinous act, or dissatisfaction with US foreign policy, or both. Recently, hundreds of Thai Muslims in Bangkok protested outside of the US embassy and called for a boycott of American goods. They also accused the US of unfairly condemning Iraq.

As for the political future of Thailand, King Bhumibol Adulyadej (76 years old) is aging and not in the best of health and, as in the case of most monarchies, the issues of succession are a point of discussion and gossip. One is reminded of the popular uprising in 1973. Still, there is a dissatisfied restive young generation that seems to be unsure of its future. Although the king seems to draw his support from the religious establishment and the military, and enjoy legitimacy (grandson of Rama V), the question in the minds of the people seems to be the fate of the country after the king dies, though Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn is in line for succession. As a country Thailand will continue, but the question remains how? That seem to be the question the citizens of emerging economies customarily have. The booming economy of Thailand, despite its industrious citizenry, continues to need reassurance and to improve the standard of living for the poor. The military is active in Thai politics as it controls the national television through its power in the government. It also owns a bank, Thai Military Bank (TMB), and this is indicative of the degree of involvement of the military in the Thai economy as well.

Meanwhile, civil society organizations, intellectuals and activists are playing their role in shaping Thai politics and society, especially in the aftermath of the economic crisis that jolted the country. In addition, Samaneri Dhammananda, whom we visited in her ashram, is the first ordained Buddhist nun (ordained in Sri Lanka where Buddhist teaching started) in Thailand; a challenge to the religious establishment (the Sangha Supreme Council) has caused dissatisfaction among conservative Buddhists. The status of women attained in the Buddhist hierarchy seems to come out of its own dynamism and women's potentiality reached in pursuing a spiritual path, and not necessarily to have been influenced by the women's liberation movement of the 1960s.

See Picture #5 ppt page 7
Samaneri Dhammananda, a Thai female monk with the author

It is worth noting that electronic media (radio and TV) are government controlled while the print media (mainly newspaper) is privatized. As we will see in the following section, Thailand is a stark contrast in many ways to Myanmar, another country that we visited.

Myanmar (Burma): some facts and historical background. Myanmar is strategically located between India and China, two Asian rivals. India, Bangladesh, China, Thailand, and Laos surround it. Yangoon (Rangoon) is the capital city and Mandalay is a commercial center. The British succeeded in occupying Myanmar in 1885 after the monarchy was deposed. The following year, Britain formally annexed Burma and incorporated it as a province of its Indian Empire.

Student political leaders at Rangoon University were at the forefront in mobilizing the people against the British colonial rule. There was unrest among the peasants, dissatisfaction among factory workers, and increased political activism among Buddhist monks, intellectuals and urban professionals. There was a growing social inequality that galvanized the Burmese people against colonialism. The Buddhist monks played a unifying role in national, social and political movements. Buddhist religion and Burmese nationalism converged and played a pivotal role in overthrowing British colonialism. A nationalist leader, Aung San, who was assassinated before he saw the independence of his country, and his Freedom Bloc, played an important role in the liberation of Burma. Aung San was credited with organizing the students' strike in 1936. That concerted struggle brought independence to Burma on January 4, 1948.

The current economic and political condition in Myanmar. Today the population of Myanmar is 42 million. The largest ethnic group, Burman, is 68%, and 89% of the total population are Buddhists. In the political sphere, the legislative branch is a unicameral (single-house) People's Assembly with 485 seats. Members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. In the Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the economy is largely state-controlled, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. For the last thirty years, a military junta (called tatmadaw) has ruled Myanmar, and has continued to stifle democracy and violate human rights. Even the resource personnel who briefed us on the different aspects of the society were very cautious and guarded in their presentations. Besides using instruments of coercion such as force and the allocation of scarce resources (jobs, contracts, etc.) to control the public and draw loyalty, the military further draws its apparent legitimacy from its close association with the Buddhist leadership. The media serves as an arm of the government and the generals continue to be the news and the newsmakers.

Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of Aung San, mentioned above as a nationalist leader during the national liberation movement, is the leader of the pro-democracy movement, and is challenging the totalitarian military regime. The National League for Democracy (NLD), headed by Aung San Suu Kyi, won 396 of the 485 contested seats (82%) in the parliament during the 1990 parliamentary election. Despite the decisive victory by this main opposition party, the military regime nullified the election and placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest. In 1991 Aung San Suu Kyi, still under house arrest, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. As the result of international pressure, Aung San Suu Kyi was freed from 19 months of house arrest in May 2002 but members of her party who were elected to Parliament remain in prison. Human rights groups estimate that there are up to 1,500 political prisoners in Burma.

The president of All Burma Students Union (ABSC), U Minko Neing, is still in jail for the 1988 student uprising. The students' demands were for academic freedom and for education that has relevance in terms of employment and self-improvement; a legitimate demand for students who aspire to improve their future and serve their country best. Today, the social science faculty is still closed. The government took further action in order to discourage students from gathering. It opened up colleges in different and distant campuses in the outskirts of Yangoon. The different ministries, such as education, health, and science and technology also grant terminal degrees. Universities are short of qualified personnel and political appointees at the helm historically deny universities independence and academic freedom.

Civic societies and human rights organizations that normally educate citizens about their rights and obligations and strive to serve as watchdogs in protecting civil rights of citizens are deliberately discouraged or are considered illegal.

The military is also accused by the Shan Human Rights Foundation and Shan Women's Action Network, of using rape as a weapon of war, as reported in The Washington Post "The Rape of Burma", July 23, 2002.
After her release from house arrest, Aung San Suu Kyi has not been outspoken in criticizing government policies. The 56year old leader seems to be careful to avoid confrontation with the military regime --- maybe a sensible stratagem for self-preservation in a hostile and unpredictable political environment. Although she is allowed to freely move within the country and talk to her supporters, I was told that, as could be expected, government informers were shadowing her. Association with foreigners could also be risky. My attempt to speak to her followers did not succeed although I do believe that she has wide support despite the government's efforts to marginalize her.

The military rule has remained undemocratic and oppressive. Military personnel head the different bureaucracies. Some ethnic minority groups, such as the Shans, are calling for independence (secession) or autonomy. The government's intransigence could pose a threat to the unity and national integrity of Myanmar, above all to economic development and to human rights protection of the citizens.

The relation between Thailand and Myanmar is not cordial at times. When we visited the two countries, they were on the verge of war and both countries waged feverish propaganda against each other, though the élite of both countries have interdependent economic interests. The border conflict has affected ethnic groups, such as the Karen, who populate both sides of the boundary. Bangkok Post (June 25, 2002), for example, alleged that more than 400,000 tribal people are left stateless as the result of the border conflict. According to the New York-based Human Rights Watch, Myanmar is the worst violator of international law and use children in armed conflicts.

The country is under economic sanctions from the west. The United States blames the military regime of Burma, which it refuses to call Myanmar, the name given by the current rulers, for refusing to take drastic action and eliminate the production and trafficking of illicit drugs, especially opium. We visited the Golden Triangle and House of Opium (a museum on the Thai side) by the Mekong River where Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar share a common border. One can witness that the place was once a hub for opium marketing and trafficking.

See Picture #8 (PPT page 26)
Opium Museum at the Golden Triangle, Thailand

Despite the economic hardship faced by the people because of the sanctions and the government policies, the people of Myanmar remain hard working and optimistic, thanks to the Buddhist ethos. A middle class that plays a pivotal role in spurring economic development has not emerged yet. The government established what it called a "volunteer beautification" a cleaning brigade by the army, involved in cleaning and beautifying the city. Their duties have been taken over by the common people who have kept Yangoon clean. Given a democratic and visionary leadership, the people would likely be able to build their country.

See Picture #9 (PPT page 10 top)
Floating market, Myanmar

Meanwhile the military government (State, Peace and Development Council) has taken the offensive in public relations in an effort to normalize relations with the US. The Washington Post (May 31, 2002) reported that the ruling junta has contracted a lobbying firm "with ties to President Bush to help push for the normalization of relations" between the two countries, at a cost of more than $450,000 a year.

In spite of the disheartening political and economic conditions in Myanmar, the Fulbright scholars were able to visit the magnificent Buddhist temples that grace the landscape. The Buddhist temples, also called pagoda, are splendid architectural achievements that belong not only to Myanmar but to the rest of the world as well. They are human achievements and as such are common goods. As some of them are showing their age and are dilapidating, UNESCO is urged to be actively involved in the preservation of these cultural heritages.

See Picture #10 (PPT page 44 top right)
Fulbright-Hayes participants visiting one of the pagodas

See Picture #11 (PPT page 43)
Pagodas gracing the landscape of Myanmar

In the smoldering tropical heat, we traversed the length and breadth of some of these pagodas barefoot, as is the custom, and were awe-stricken by their majestic and solemn affect. Some of the pagodas date back to the 11th century and now hold a wealth of archeological findings and remain a vast source of research topics for interested scholars. As our resource person from the University of Hawaii, Prof. Michael A. Aung-Thwin, an authority on the area, reminded us; there exists a dearth of research regarding the pagodas of Myanmar. Unlike in most occupied or colonized societies, most of the Burmese temples were left undestroyed. Sadly, however, the fabled Mandalay palace, known as the "City of Gems" was destroyed by fire during WWII. This also reminds us that centuries of human achievements can easily be destroyed within days, if not hours. One more reason for peaceful conflict resolution.

Myanmar remains a fascinating country where the pagodas, similar to the statues of the Buddha, stared at us and "spoke" to us.

Concluding remarks: the importance of global literacy to students and teachers. Finally, a word needs to be said about the importance of international experience, such as the one I participated in, for faculty and students alike. It will surely broaden our knowledge and enhance our global understanding. For a long time, the mission of most institutions of higher education in the US focused on teaching, research and community services. Another mission statement is added now in most cases --- international experience, broadly defined. In an increasingly interdependent world, both internationalized curriculum and overseas experience is an added value not only for institutions of higher education but also for interested individuals. Universities are increasingly requiring of their students not only World Languages and International Studies but also overseas experience in order to graduate as well-rounded global citizens. Besides the knowledge gained, marketability for employment will be enhanced as well. In the case where teachers receive overseas experience, students will be major beneficiaries of such experience. An imaginative teacher can qualitatively improve her/his course by adding international experience to the lecture.

Thanks to the Center for Southeast Asian Studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, and the generous support from the Freeman Foundation and the Fulbright-Hays Program of the USDOE our team has benefited from the academic sojourn to Thailand and Myanmar. I hope this knowledge gained will be reflected in our lectures, subject offerings, and seminars to colloquies and interested members of the public. Knowledge gained must be shared.

Overseas travel is not a picnic. Above all, it demands an open mind, passion, respect, and appreciation for another culture and people who speak, behave, and look different from us. People must try not to generalize. An isolated action will not be attributed to the actor alone. People tend to judge an entire nation by one such incident. For this very reason university officials must show the utmost prudence when recruiting participants for overseas programs. Participants are ambassadors of goodwill and do indeed represent the whole nation and not just a single institution or person. Mental maturity, the ability to be a team player, and an open mind are thus required. Participants must respect and accept unfamiliar culture. One's own culture cannot be seen as the gold standard for all others.

In general, international experience must be encouraged not only for teachers but for students as well in this increasingly interdependent world. International curricula and experience must be the way of the future. Not the least reward of the experience is that it can allow us to discover ourselves

See Picture #14 (PPT page 34 left)
Beauty from Burma